There Be Witches!
In Arthur Miller’s seminal work The Crucible self appointed witchcraft expert the Reverend Hale, in a moment of self-doubt desperately cries out “There be Witches”
The play is about a true event in
American history recalling the tragic and astonishing events that took place in
The play has always been described as an allegorical commentary on the persecution of communists, both real and perceived by Senator McCarthy and his un-American activities committee. Miller was himself a “suspect” in McCarthy’s investigations that ruined the careers of many writers, actors and film producers. This allegory is so strong that ‘McCarthyite witch hunt’ has entered the language to denote any fanatical labelling, marginalising and persecution of those with perceived different views to the masses.
The allegory can quite easily be applied to modern psychiatry. Psychiatry has always been a controversial branch of medicine and in terms of medical disciplines still a relatively young branch. It is however old enough to have entered the medical pantheon while medicine was still more of an art than a science.
Medicine today is more and more frequently described in terms of science. Medical Science is a frequent label used to describe the physician’s art and the practice of medicine itself. With the origin and development of drugs and surgical techniques it has become evermore exact and evermore resembles the hard sciences of chemistry and physics. Where medical practice harks back to a simpler and some would say more natural age, critics from the mainstream talk in terms of quacks and decry the fact that many of what are known as alternative practitioners are “unqualified”[1]
Over the last three decades psychiatry has sought to assert itself firmly into this mainstream of “scientific medicine”. How has it fared in this quest to be a ‘medical science’?
Around about the middle nineteen seventies mental illness began to be perceived as a consequence of biological and genetic dysfunctions. Scientific explanations were being sought for why one individual might become so psychotic, so mentally disorientated that they would need medical intervention to prevent them being of harm to themselves or others[2]. Of its self this theory is plausible. Many human diseases are caused by a failure in one of the body’s systems. Endocrine disorders can be traced back to glandular dysfunctions, diabetes is a failure in the Islets of Langerhans, part of the pancreas.
Why not then consider that dysfunctions in behaviour were the fault of the dysfunctional brain? It had been known for over a century that the brain was in fact the organ that controlled behaviour. Was it not logical that if a dysfunctional endocrine system could cause disease that a dysfunctional brain could do likewise?
The growing acceptance that mental illness was biochemical in nature caused a rapid and huge growth in a branch of the pharmaceutical industry that had for many years been an insignificant adjunct. Chemical dysfunctions need chemical cures[3].
The “scientific” problems
of biopsychiatry
The biggest and perhaps most embarrassing problem for psychiatry is that over the last thirty years there has been no real evidence, medical or otherwise to definitively prove that mental illness, which by its very nature must manifest itself in behavioural disturbances, has any physiological, biochemical or genetic cause. The evidence such as there is anecdotal.
The biochemical theory has for decades mooted the possibility that behavioural disturbances, delusions or aberrant behaviour are due to dysfunctions in the neurotransmitter system. In short either too much or too little serotonin, dopamine etc. There is in fact no clinical evidence to support this and no objective experiment carried out by empirically validated methodology has been able to identify these neurotransmitter chemicals as being causes, part of the etiology, of mental illness.
What this means is that while neurotransmitter chemicals cannot be ruled out as a possible cause of mental illness the theory is not at present supported by science. It is a belief system.
Since the biological model was introduced there has been a colossal increase in the number of “mental illnesses”. The old classification in which existed the psychoses and the neuroses has been subsumed into a huge boundary-less empire of mental disorders in which the differences between sanity and insanity, normality and disorder are meaningless[4].
Is there a boundary between sanity and insanity? Are most people “mentally” well with only a few unfortunate individuals mentally diseased because of chemical imbalances?
How can we define mental illness? Being healthy today is described by the World Health Organisation in terms of, not simply an absence of disease but of an overall well being. An interesting if unscientific concept related perhaps more to philosophy than any concept of medical science. We would accept that the human condition represents a wide range of experiences, emotions and beliefs that might be described in terms of life’s rich pageant. In our lives we expect to be happy, sad, angry, bored, frightened, in love, resentful and sometimes a combination of these feelings at the same time.
These feelings represent our reactions to stimuli combined with who we are as people. We are the product of our experiences[5]. It is the interaction of these experiences and with the empathy for the experiences of others that define humanity.
The old classification of mental disorders into psychoses and neuroses made clear distinction between normal human experiences and those “off the scale”. Fear is a normal emotion and is primeval in origin. Fear is a required evolutionary trait for survival in a world of predators and prey. Irrational fear and paranoia are features of mental illness. Those suffering from the psychoses endure terrible fear of non-existent threats. This fear is all consuming and destructive and since it’s cause is not real it cannot be addressed. This is fear which is outside the range of normal emotions. This fear is suffered like pain. These people can rightly be said to be unwell. Their emotions and experiences fall way outside those of the population.
What of the new disorders? The dramatic growth of the diagnostic manual (DSM-IV[6]) has seen the description of mental illness expand. No longer is a mental illness something different or abnormal it now encompasses a range of emotions and behaviours that fall within the experiences of the majority of the population.
Under the old classification depression was a severely debilitating disorder that fell within the description of a psychosis, in which a patient was delusional, manic, suicidal, even homicidal. Those suffering from Manic Depression[7] had episodes where they could not sleep or eat for days. They were delusional and hyperactive. A few days of this was followed by a crushing, life threatening depression that the vast majority of people are fortunate never to have suffered.
This condition, so clearly outside the range of normal human experience[8] is now rolled up with conditions that were defined as neuroses. Anxiety states as they were called are now redefined as “symptoms” of depression. Indicators that there is a biochemical imbalance. This has resulted in a huge increase in the number of people who are now by definition mentally ill and a phenomenal growth in the prescribing of psychopharmaceutical products to treat them[9]
What is this to do with
Witchcraft?
Returning to the Crucible, what Miller describes in this play is a combination of human traits that allow such tragedies to happen. The characters in the play are driven by a number of conflicting desires in a society racked by superstition, greed and arrogance. The girls who bring the accusations of witchcraft are not possessed by the devil and they know they are not. Their attention seeking and viscious personalities ignite the fuse and the citizens of the town are eager to pour fuel onto it.
The main players for the establishment care not whether witches exist or not. The malevolent Reverend Parris knows that those convicted and executed will forfeit their property and some of this will be given to him as a custodian of the church. The Reverend Hale, an intellectual priest is a self appointed expert on witches and the appearance of witchcraft in Salem gives him the opportunity to parade his expertise and superiority. He is seen carrying his books on the occult[10] that confer upon him an authority and set him aloof from the lowly townsfolk.
These books are the “diagnostic manuals” of the day of the American Witch Hunting Association. He equates to our modern day researcher into biopsychiatry, a discipline that like witch finding owes more to belief systems and prejudice than to proof and science.
Many of the victims of the witch hunt themselves become the keenest of denouncers of others, some to save themselves others to be seen to be compliant.
The modern allegories are clear, the rise of modern psychiatry has remarkable parallels with the witch hunting that was the scourge of Europe and early America from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries. Our petulant schoolgirls are the “patients” poor seventeenth century victims of demonic possession. The ADHD of three hundred years ago. The Reverend Parris ever quick to spot a profit in the misfortune of others is the avaricious psychiatrist ever keener to have more People denounced as witches to increase the share of the property that he will acquire as a result.
There is nothing new in an article that examines witchcraft by reference to mental illness. It is undoubtedly the case that many of the hundreds of thousands of people killed in witch-hunts over the centuries were in fact lonely outcasts from society, sufferers of mental conditions that set them apart. Living alone with their cats and shunned by the community. All it took was a bad harvest or an attack of an infectious disease to turn the peoples attention to these unfortunates. Labelling and meting out special treatments to those seen as different is as old as humanity itself.
Finding what you look for
The witch finders of antiquity were zealous in their quests to discover their prey. So zealous in fact that one infamous Witch Finder General, Mathew Hopkins was so “efficient” that between 1645 and 1646 as many people were executed as witches as had been in the previous 160 years. Hopkins toured the countryside in search of his prey. Today’s equivalent is the Psych Finder General. As Hopkins saw witchcraft everywhere these people see mental illness everywhere. As Hopkins sought out the devil’s marks on his victims with pricking irons[11] and by reference to the Malleus Malefactorum, these people study brain scans and DSM-IV.
The exponential growth in the diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a modern day equivalent to the dramatic increase in witchcraft perceived during the reign of Hopkins. The “Witchfinder Generals” are the pediatric psychiatrists and they have an army of assistants to help them. ADHD is identified in the main by non-medical professionals[12] who like the seventeenth century townsfolk of Salem denounce the child to the professional for “special examination[13] and treatment”
Witch hunters used torture to obtain confessions, psychiatry today could not function without coercion.
Coercion in the days of
witchcraft took the form of torture. Its
usual purpose was to extract confession or to demonstrate that the witch did
not feel pain, as did ordinary people.
In Salem in 1692 the Witchfinder used a variety of coercive techniques
on those denounced as witches. Perhaps the most poignant case is the treatment
of Giles Cory.
Cory was an octogenarian
farmer who despite his age was still a fit and strong man. When he fell under suspicion he was taken for
examination where he refused to confess to witchcraft. In seventeenth century Massachusetts in order
for the state to be able to confiscate the property of a witch they had to
confess. Cory refused. He intended his farm to be left to his family
and in an act of incredible bravery endured torture by pressing to death[14]. He steadfastly refused to confess even though
his tormentors added to his suffering by repeatedly telling him that he would
go to hell if he did not atone.
Coercion in the present day world of psychiatry is perhaps more subtle. Treatments are offered to the patient to “make them better”. They are told that if they take their medicine that they can live in the community with all the nice normal people. When a patient has the temerity to refuse the coercion gets a little more like that Cory experienced. The psychiatrist will exert pressure in the form of threats. “You will be kept in an institution”, “you are a danger to yourself and the community”. The patient has about as much choice in this as did those accused of witchcraft in Salem.
One of the most famous
people in history, a person who was later canonized a saint, was tried as a
witch. Joan of Arc the teenage girl, who
incredibly inspired the armies of France to defeat the English in the Hundred
Years War was betrayed by the Burgundians to the English and put on trial for
witchcraft. During her examination and
trial she was repeatedly exhorted to confess.
If she did her captors told her she would be spared execution and
imprisoned for life instead.
Joan refused and was burnt
at the stake in Rouen on the 30th May 1431.
Joan of Arc is an
interesting analogy of witchcraft and mental illness. Joan had been born a simple peasant girl who
when she was in her teens had begun to hear voices. She believed that this was the word of God
and the saints imploring her to liberate France from the English. Her enemies of course took a different
view. These voices were proof that she
was indeed a witch and attributed the voices to more malevolent origins.
We are of course much more
enlightened today. Joan would not be
burnt at the stake today instead she would be told she was a paranoid schizophrenic,
forced into an institution and drugged with neuroleptics until she “saw the
light”. If she protested she would
simply be told that her protests were part of her illness and condemned as a
mental patient just as her fifteenth century forbear was condemned as a
witch.
Witch hunters used manuals, great treatises on the occult to both justify their actions and to elevate themselves as “experts”. Psychiatrists today will use the DSM-IV and the ICD-10 to label, coerce and treat, without concern for human dignity or rights those who it considers different. The construction and use of our modern day DSM-IV and ICD-10 owes more to the dogma and belief of the mediaeval witch hunter than a medical text and has just about the same level of scientific merit as the Malleus Malefactorum or the Grimoire of Astaroth
Epilogue
We must never be dismissive of the superstitions of the people of the seventeenth century and earlier who believed in malevolent spirits, demonic possession and witchcraft. To them a failed harvest could not easily be explained. The death of babies from infectious diseases was to them divine retribution. They did not have our scientific knowledge. We are arrogantly applying 20/20 hindsight if we condemn the ordinary people of the day.
What of the witch finders themselves? Hopkins made a fortune out of his reign of terror, being paid handsomely for his relentless discovery of witches. However he died in disgrace, curiously because he had defrauded one of his employers.
Readers of the play will discover that redemption comes to the Reverend Hale. He is a zealous finder of witches himself but as the hysteria grows and the terrible consequences unfurl he experiences self-doubt. He cannot prove the existence of sorcery or witchcraft but his self-doubt consumes him. When challenged about the existence of witches he cannot adduce proof. Instead he repeats in exasperation “There be Witches’
Today’s biopsychiatrists appear to be far from the self-doubt that eventually crushed the Reverend Hale but the signs are there. In spite of repeated calls from the doubters none of these modern witch finder generals has been able to adduce one piece of objective empirically validated evidence that their theories are true. “There be Chemical Imbalances” is their cry. “There be ADHD” they repeat as if in the same self doubt[15] that dawned on the Reverend Hale in the Crucible. Arrogance and belief in theories unproved by science have taken the place of superstition in our society. No, we do not burn witches anymore but our treatment of the mentally ill still has many parallels with the past.
Of course modern psychiatry has many supporters. The orthodox in the medical profession accept the theories of biochemical imbalance and genetic disposition just as the orthodox clergy and the population of the seventeenth century accepted without question a belief in witches and the occult.
Twenty years after the frenzy that gripped that little Massachusetts town the Government of the Commonwealth compensated the surviving victims of the witch-hunt and the relatives of those killed. Witchcraft and state theocracy in Massachusetts was finished.
Hope springs eternal….
Barry Turner
Chair ASPIRE September 2003
Barry
Turner is a lecturer in legal studies in Forensic Science in the Department of
Biological Sciences, University of Lincoln UK, Criminal Litigator and Mental
Health Law Consultant. He can be contacted
on bturner@lincoln.ac.uk
[1] Meaning in terms of not having had the correct and formal training of modern physicians
[2] The euphemism justifying treatment without consent
[3] More properly treatments. To date not one “cure” has been discovered by the whole of the pharmaceutical industry combined for any of the classified mental illnesses.
[4] The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual has grown from 112 mental disorders in its initial, 1952 edition to 163 in the 1968, DSM-II to 224 in the 1980, DSM-III, 253 in the 1987 DSM-III-R , and, 374 in the 1994, DSM-IV.
[5] The Nurture or Nature debate has raged in philosophy for three centuries. Modern psychiatry choses to ignore the view that our personalities are formed by our experience preferring the more “scientific” Neuropsychological approach
[6] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, now in it fourth revised print.
[7] Now re-badged Bipolar and expanded to include a wider range of “symptoms”
[8] Episodes of Manic Depression could be spontaneous. Unlike the reactive depressions that we all suffer in the face of adversity this condition was referred to as endogenous or coming from within. No distinction is now drawn between a reactive depression and an episode that has no obvious cause.
[9] The benzodiazepines were the precursors to this trend. The SSRI’s epitomised by the Eli Lilly drug Prozac are now dispensed to over 38 million people world wide
[10] The Malleus Malefactorum was the Hammer of Witches. A diagnostic manual designed to help the witch finder identify his prey. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association bears a strong resemblance to this work of hysteria.
[11] The witch finder would subject his victim to a humiliating body search for blemishes and moles that were claimed to be the devils marks and places where the witch’s familiars would suckle. If no moles were found then the body would be pricked all over until it appeared that a point on the skin showed no pain or did not bleed. Hopkins had a special iron with a retracting blade that was designed to cause no pain or wound This of course made the finding of a witch inevitable. Today we have a more “scientific” method in the PET and MRI scan. Although no one can say for sure that different scans indicate mental illness many psychologists and psychiatrists alike cite these as “evidence” of mental illness and justification for treatment.
[12] These people are usually teachers or social workers who apply subjective tick tests to identify the “symptoms” of ADHD just as the populace exposed witches in their midst. The denounced will be handed over for a proper examination by the ADHD finder General who will confirm the “diagnosis”
[13] As mentioned above this can involve brain scans where subjective interpretation suits to “confirm” the diagnosis. Most of these scan studies have been discredited and have no scientific merit either in the theoretical concept or in the methodology employed. A bit like Hopkins and his pricking sticks.
[14] This involved quite simply placing the accused spread-eagled on the floor, placing a large board on top of them and adding weights to it until they either confessed or died. Cory new that if he confessed that his property would be forfeit.
[15] The language of the ADHD lobby is interesting. While asserting ADHD to be scientifically validated it proponents use expressions like ADHD may be, ADHD is believed to be, Scientists believe, studies indicate. The language of belief systems not proof.